Main Beliefs
Buddhists believe in the “four noble truths”:
1) Existence is suffering (dukkha)
2) Suffering has a cause, namely craving and attachment (trishna)
3) There is a cessation of suffering (nirvana)
4) There is a path to the cessation of suffering, the “eightfold path” of right views, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
Buddhism lives in terms of process and relation rather than entity or substance.
Experience is analyzed into five groups (skandhas).
1) Rupa: material existence
2) Sensations (vedana)
3) Perceptions (samjna)
4) Psychic Constructs (samskara)
5) Consciousness (vijnana)
All groups are interrelated and dependent on 12 causes and conditions, which are ignorance, predisposition, consciousness, name-form, the senses, contact, craving, grasping, becoming, birth, old age, and death.
Buddhism is rooted in views of cause and effect. Therefore, Buddhisms believe in samsara, which means that living beings are trapped in a continual cycle of birth-and-death, with the drive to rebirth dependent on one’s previous physical and mental action (karma). The release from this cycle of rebirth and suffering is the total transcendence called nirvana.
Meditation and observance of moral precepts is the foundation of Buddhist practice. The five basic moral precepts are to refrain from taking life, stealing, acting unchastely, speaking falsely, and drinking intoxicants. These precepts are followed both my members of monastic orders and also by the laity. In addition to these precepts members of monastic orders refrain from eating at improper times, from viewing secular entertainments, from using garlands, perfumes, and other bodily adornments, from sleeping in high and wide beds, and from receiving money.
Members of the monastic order (sangha) are further regulated by a large number of rules known as the Pratimoska. The sangha are recognized as one of the “three jewels,” along with the religious teaching (dharma) and the Buddha.
History of Buddhism
Buddhism takes its name from Siddhartha Gautama, the “awakened one,” or Buddha. Gautama was born in 566 BCE to royal parents in what is now known as southern Nepal. He was born with a series of good omens. Before his birth, his mother (the queen) dreamt of a white elephant painlessly entering her side and when he was born he was said to have sprang from his mother’s side, taking 7 steps and said “I have been born to achieve awakening (Bodhi) for the good of the world-this is my last birth.” In addition sages saw wheels on his hands and feet and prophesized that he would grow to be a chakravartin (wheel-turner), meaning he would be a mighty king or great religious teacher.
As Gautama grew he wanted to see outside of the palace walls and when he did he saw three sights that brought home the reality of human suffering. He saw an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. On another occasion he saw a wandering ascetic (shramana) who was wandering in order to seek release from the world of suffering. This encounter inspired Gautama to take on the life of a wanderer and he went forth practicing a life of the “middle way.” Gautama avoided extremes of self-indulgence and self-denial.
Gautama’s wandering took him to the Bodhi Tree, or tree of awakening. He sat beneath it in order to win freedom from death and rebirth. While underneath the tree, the evil God, Mara, sent his daughters to seduce him and his sons to frighten him, but he did not waiver. He reached perfect enlightenment (parinirvana) and became enlightened about Dharma (truth or law) of human existence and became a Buddha. He found the answer to the deepest dilemmas of human life.
Buddha traveled to Sarnath near Varanasi and met five former companions. He taught them a sermon (sutra), known as the first turning of the wheel of Dharma (law). The companions became the nucleus of the Buddhist Samgha. For the rest of his life, 45 years) Buddha wandered North India and preached the Dharma. While in Kushinagari he gave his last discourse and died while lying down between two trees (486BCE). He had reached his “final nirvana” and was never to be reborn.
Structure
To be a “sacred person” in the Buddhist tradition is, above all, to imitate the example of the Buddha. The most basic way to do this is to embark on a monastic life in pursuit of nirvana (perfect enlightenment).
The Buddhist community or samgha has four divisions: monks, nuns, laymen, and laywomen. The monks and nuns renounce the duties of ordinary lay people and live lives of simplicity. They laity marry, have families, grow crops, accumulate and distribute wealth, maintain order, and do everything to enable the inhabitants of the monasteries to pursue nirvana.
Different Sects
Theravada (Doctrine of the Elders): Also called Hinayana (the lesser vehicle), Theravada, is the earliest form of Buddhism and is probably the closest to the original doctrine of Shakyamuni. Theravada Buddhism stresses moral discipline and the idea that enlightenment can only be achieved by closely following the Buddha’s path. Therefore, enlightenment is only possible to a devoted few (usually members of the monastic community. Theravada imagery revolves around Buddha’s past lives and his life before reaching enlightenment. Theravada became popular in the Southeast Asian countries of Sri Lanka (2nd Century), Thailand (3rd Century) and Burma (Myanmar; 5th Century).
Mahayana: Also known as “The Greater Vehicle” regards Gautama as only one emanation of Buddhahood and holds that other cosmic Buddhas inhabit other worlds into which the faithful could be reborn. Elements of worship and devotion developed so that salvation could be open to all through the intervention of bodhisattvas (a being who elected to postpone entrance into nirvana in order to help others achieve enlightenment. Mahayana Buddhism grew popular in India after the time of Christ and spread to China (1st Century AD), Korea (early 6th Century), Japan (mid-6th Century) and Tibet (7th Century).
Vajrayana: A form of Esoteric Buddhism, Vajrayana incorporates many different practices, including some sexual rites, to induce the state of enlightenment. Vajrayana includes the worship of folk gods as well as Hindu Deities and stresses the transmission of mantras, mudras (gestures) and mandalas (diagrams) from master to pupil.
Zen Buddhism: Zen Budddhism adopts the majority of Mahayanist practices, as well as stressing an individual’s efforts to achieve enlightenment through meditation (inspired by Gautama who first achieved enlightenment while seated in meditation.
Religious Symbols and Texts
Buddhist texts are often recited or copied as acts of devotion, and it is not uncommon for texts to be placed on altars as objects of worship, along-side, or even instead of, images of the Buddha.
Amitabha: (Infinite Light) The celestial Buddha who is said to have established a paradise, the “Pure Land,” on becoming a Buddha.
Avalokiteshvara: A bodhisattva who has been called the personification of the compassionate gaze of the Buddha. One can invoke Avalokiteshvara’s compassion by pronouncing the mantra “Om Mani Padme Hum” (“O Jewel in the Lotus”), which is a popular meditation mantra.
Bhaishajyaguru: The physician-buddha (Teacher of Healing).
Dharma Body: Gautama’s teachings.
Form body: objects, images, and sites sanctified through their association with events in the Buddha’s life. For example, the funerary mounds (stupas) where Gautama’s ashes were distributed.
Hum: An untranslatable syllable that represents the spirit of enlightenment.
Jataka: A body of traditional texts full of tales that describe how Siddhartha Gautama received teaching from previous buddhas, how he exhibited many of the moral virtues of the Buddhist tradition, and how he prepared for his final awakening.
Kshitigarbha: the Consoler of the dead and protector of travelers, pilgrims, and children.
Mahayan Sutras: Mahayana Buddhism also considers the Tripitaka as a sacred text, but adds to it the Sutras, which reflect distinctively Mahayana concepts. The Sutras bear the direct authority of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Different divisions of Mahayana Buddhism emphasize different Sutras, but texts like the Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra are important to most branches of Mahayana.
Maitreya: The Buddha of the future age, who will be the next bodhisattva to enter the world and become a Buddha. Maitreya is said to rescue people in danger.
Mandala: symbolizes the relationship between the macrocosm and the microcosm: it represents the entirety of the cosmos and also the mind and body of the practitioner. Mandalas are used in Tantric ritual and meditation to help the devotee unify his or her vision of the cosmos; to contemplate the integration of the self and the world; and to overcome the distinction between nirvana and the realm of death and rebirth.
Manjushri: the bodhisattva of wisdom.
Om: An untranslatable syllable that is said to be the sacred sound from which the universe was created and is believed by some to contain the essence of true knowledge.
Pali Canon: A traditional Theravada text, the Palicanon contains ancient material from earliest stages of the oral tradition alongside texts possibly composed in the second century BCE. The Palicanon contains the Tipitaka (“three baskets”) of the Theravada tradition. The three baskets are the three sections of the Pali canon: the sutta (Sanskrit, Sutra) Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, and Abhidhamma (Sanskrit, Abhidharma) Pitaka. The Sutta Pitaka generally consists of the Buddha’s doctrinal discourses and rages from short poems to long prose narratives about the Buddha’s previous lives. The Vinaya Pitaka is concerned with rules of discipline and includes stories that illustrate Buddhist moral principles. The Abhidhamma Pitaka provides a systematic analysis of the categories of Buddhist thought.
Sanskrit: Classical Sanskrit is a language in which South Asian kings, literary theorists, philosophers, playwrights, poets, religious seers, scientists, and theologians often chose to express themselves. It is, therefore, an indispensable tool for understanding classical South Asia and the ways in which classical traditions and ideas influence and explain the present.
Tibetan Book of the Dead: “The Great Liberation upon Hearing in the Intermediate State” is traditionally believed to be the work of Padma Sambhava in the 8th Century A.D. The book acts as a guide for the dead during the state that intervenes death and the next rebirth.
Vairochana: The sun Buddha (radiant).
Buddhism and the Vietnam War
In the midst of the Vietnam conflict, Vietnamese monks in Saigon immolated themselves–an act the entire world witnessed through press coverage. Secretary of State Henry Cabot Lodge then met with Vietnamese and Japanese Buddhist leaders, and the State Department established an Office of Buddhist Affairs headed by Claremont College Professor Richard Gard. While Americans were reacting to the monks’ acts of self-immolation, another Vietnamese monk, named Thich Nhat Hanh, came to the United States to speak about the conflict. His visit, coupled with the publication in English of his book, Lotus in a Sea of Fire, so impressed Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. that King nominated Nhat Hanh for the Nobel Peace Prize.
Buddhism mid-20th Century North America
Buddhism made its debut in the Western world in 1850 and was actively spread by 1900. By the mid-20th century almost all of the major Buddhist schools of tradition had come to be represented in the west.
Sources:
“Buddhism.” Infoplease. Columbia University Press, 2012. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.
Coogan, Michael David., and Vasudha Narayanan. Eastern Religions: Origins, Beliefs,
Practices, Holy Texts, Sacred Places. Ed. Michael D. Coogan. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2005.
Print.
SoHare, John Bruno. “Sacred Texts: Buddhism.” Internet Sacred Text Archive. Web. 10 Feb. 2016.